... the regulation of natural and spontaneous processes of observation, suggestion, and testing; that is, thinking as an art.
(John Dewey) |
Maricopa faculty members work together at the Teaching for Critical Thinking Dialogue Day (Oct 4-5, 2001 at Rio Salado College).
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Critical thinking is a highly valued student outcome today not only in academic settings, especially in higher education, but in professional environments. Employers expect people who can think critically; teachers want students who can think critically; society needs citizens who can think critically. Critical thinking has been considered "integral to business and economic success in our global economy, necessary for responsible democratic citizenship, and a vital part of professional practice in a wide variety of occupations"
(N. Facione, 2000). Having mastered content knowledge is no longer satisfactory; we are expected to be reflective, think creatively, solve problems, and communicate clearly. This is not to say that knowledge is not important. Effective critical thinking and problem solving actually depend upon relevant knowledge and previous experience (McKeachie, 1999; P. Facione, 1998). However, knowledge acquisition should not be an end in itself. Our goal should be to develop the ability to incorporate facts and concepts in our problem solving and evaluative thinking.
We know that we all think and, as some assert, we are natural problem solvers (McKeachie, 1999); therefore, we have the capability to develop skills that would allow us to think critically. So why is it that we are not automatically able to think critically? Richard Paul (2000) says that "... much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed or down-right prejudiced." The good news is that we can do something about it: teach our students to improve their thinking. As John Dewey (1916) said: "Merely to leave everything to nature was, after all, but to negate the very idea of education; it was to trust to the accidents of circumstance."
Assumptions About Critical Thinking From Research:
- We are all capable of thought. We think to make sense of things and to make sense we have to be able to conceptualize; we need some knowledge and we need to have reason.
- "Excellence of thought and skill in thinking are real possibilities." (Paul and Elder, 2000)
- Critical thinking is a dynamic process. (Jacobs, Ott, Sullivan, Ulrich, and Short, 1997)
- Reasoning is a significant focus of critical thinking. (Paul, Elder, and Bartell, 1997)
- Thinking can be taught. (Cotton, 1991)
- "Critical thinking, understood in a rich, robust, cross-disciplinary sense, can be learned, taught, measured, and practiced." (Researchers from the California Academic Press)
- "Thinking is a set of skills, like writing, which need to be practiced until they are automatized." (McKeachie, 1986)
- "While CT is an inherently human process (not discipline-specific), students should be presented with discipline-specific situations to sharpen their individual ways of coming to know and judge." (Parse, 1996)
- Direct instruction of thinking skills should be done within context and should include modeling and coaching for students in the initial stages, leading to increased student engagement and participation. (French and Rhoder, 1992)
- "Consideration must be given to allow adequate time for student's critical thinking abilities to develop and for faculty to evaluate these changes." (Videbeck, 1997)
Definition of Critical Thinking
Critical thinking has been interpreted in a variety of ways. There is no "official" definition of critical thinking and, in fact, there seem to be as many and varied definitions of critical thinking as there are definitions of thinking. I find the definition below from Richard Paul and Michael Scriven to be a comprehensive description of what a process of thinking critically involves.
Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness. It entails the examination of those structures or elements of thought implicit in all reasoning: purpose, problem, or question-at-issue, assumptions, concepts, empirical grounding; reasoning leading to conclusions, implication and consequences, objections from alternative viewpoints, and frame of reference. Critical thinking - in being responsive to variable subject matter, issues, and purposes - is incorporated in a family of interwoven modes of thinking, among them: scientific thinking, mathematical thinking, historical thinking, anthropological thinking, economic thinking, moral thinking, and philosophical thinking.
Implications for Teachers
Richard Paul and Linda Elder (2001) contend that "thinking, to be critical, must not be accepted at face value but must be analyzed and assessed for clarity, accuracy, relevance, depth, breadth, and logicalness." They suggest that teachers can help students develop the ability to apply these standards by asking specific questions such as the following:
Clarity
Could you state ... in your own words?
Could you elaborate on ...?
Could you give me an example of ...?
Could you illustrate ...?
Accuracy
How could we find out if that is true?
How can we verify or test that?
Relevance
How does that relate to the problem?
How does that bear on the issue or question?
Depth
What are some of the complexities of the question or issue?
How does your answer address the complexities in the question?
Breadth
Is there another way to look at this question?
Do we need to consider another point of view or perspective?
Logic
Does this really make sense?
Does _____ follow from the evidence? How?
Methods that Engage Students In Thinking About Content
Richard Paul suggests the use of the following methods to engage students in thinking about content. Routinely, call on students at random to:
- Summarize or put into their own words what you (the teacher) or another student has said.
- Elaborate on what they have said.
- Relate the issue or content to their own knowledge and experience.
- Give examples to clarify or support what they have said.
- Make connections between related concepts.
- Restate the instructions or assignment in their own words.
- State the question at issue.
- Describe to what extent their point of view on the issue is different from or similar to the point of view of the instructor, other students, the author, etc.
- Take a few minutes to write down any of the above.
- Write down the most pressing question on their mind at this point. Then use the above tactics to help students reason through the questions.
- Discuss any of the above with a partner and then participate in a group discussion facilitated by you (the teacher).
Other Strategies That Promote Active Learning and Critical Thinking
Caryl Terrell-Bamiro and Ralph Sandoval (Chandler-Gilbert Community College) practice thinking aloud.
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- Writing: ask students to write a brief paragraph or two about a topic and to describe why the topic might be relevant to them now or in the future. You may also have students freewrite, brainstorm, compare-contrast, paraphrase.
- Journals: ask students to keep a journal to record experiences or reactions to readings and their reflections on those experiences.
- Questions: encourage student questioning and participation, ask students questions, ask students to write questions about their readings, ask students to ask questions of other students. Increase the time you wait for a student to respond to a question.
- Collaboration: have students work in cooperative learning groups in class; do think-pair-share activities; have students question each other.
- Discussions: engage your students in student-led discussions, in small and large groups, to explore key concepts. Encourage brainstorming and questioning in small groups.
- Projects: design projects that engage students in developing and testing hypotheses, inquiry, exploration, decision making, problem solving.
- Study skills: encourage students to outline, paraphrase, develop cognitive maps.
Conclusion
If we believe that anyone's thinking can be improved over time and with practice, then we should incorporate into our lessons methods that encourage, guide, and provide opportunities for students to think more effectively. Suggested strategies include:
- Use a variety of strategies that stimulate active learning.
- Model ways to learn strategically and to think critically.
- Think out loud about your thinking.
- Use questions not statements.
- Make students read, write, and discuss.
- Ask students to state, elaborate, exemplify, and illustrate.
- Provide guided practice with specific feedback on performance.
- Structure varied and frequent opportunities for students to practice and evaluate their thinking skills.
- Assess frequently/Check for under-standing/Monitor for comprehension.
- Foster student self-assessment.
- Make students accountable for their readings, homework, and in-class work.
- Allow students time to think and reflect.
- Maintain a positive, stimulating, encouraging, and respectful classroom environment. Value independent thinking.
References and Resources
Cotton, K. (1991). Teaching Thinking Skills. School Improvement Research Series (SIRS) (on-line serial from NW Regional Educational Laboratory). http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/6/cu11.html
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and Education. Available on-line from Digital Texts, Columbia University: http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/projects/digitexts/dewey/d_e/chapter07.html
Facione, N. (2000). Critical Thinking and Clinical Judgment. Available on-line from California Academic Press: http://www.calpress.com/resource.html
Facione, P. (1998). Critical Thinking: What It Is And Why It Counts. Available on-line from California Academic Press: http://www.calpress.com/resource.html
French, J. N. & Rhoder, C. (1992). Teaching Thinking Skills: Theory and Practice. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc.
Jacobs, M. J., Ott, B., Sullivan, B., Ulrich, Y., & Short, L. (1997). An Approach to Defining and Operationalizing Critical Thinking. Journal of Nursing Education, 36 (1), 19-22.
McKeachie, W. J. (1986). A Response to Teaching Critical Thinking in Psychology. Critical Evaluation of the book Teaching Critical Thinking in Psychology, Milwaukee, WI: Alverno Productions.
McKeachie, W. J. (1999). Teaching Tips. Strategies, Research, and Theory for College and University Teachers. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Paul, R. & Elder, L. (2000). The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking. Concepts & Tools. The Foundation for Critical Thinking.
Paul, R. & Elder, L. (2001). Critical Thinking. Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life. Upper Saddle River: NJ: Prentice Hall.
Paul, R., Elder, L., & Bartell, T. (1997). California Teacher Preparation for Instruction in Critical Thinking: Research Findings and Policy Recommendations. The Foundation for Critical Thinking.
Parse, R. R. (1996). Critical Thinking: What Is It? Nursing Science Quarterly, 9 (4), 139.
Videbeck, S. L. (1997). Critical Thinking: Prevailing Practice in Baccalaureate Schools of Nursing. Journal of Nursing Education, 36 (1), 5-10.
Foundation for Critical Thinking
http://www.criticalthinking.org/
California Academic Press
http://www.calpress.com/
Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum Project
http://www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/Longview/ctac/ctac.htm
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