Understanding Cooperative Learning and How to Use It

Barbara J. Millis, Ph.D., United States Air Force Academy

Teachers wishing to harness the power of group work need to know how to establish and maintain a cooperative classroom. Cooperative learning entails small groups working on specific tasks -- often problem-solving ones -- best completed through a highly structured team process. Cooperative learning results in many well-researched outcomes including higher academic achievement because students benefit from peer coaching and from the divergent viewpoints that promote critical thinking. Cooper and Mueck (1990) note, for example: "The most consistent positive findings for cooperative learning... have centered on affective or attitudinal change. Outcome measures such as racial/ethnic relations, sex difference relations, self-esteem, and other prosocial outcomes have all been documented in the Cooperative Learning research" (p. 71).

Dr. Barabara Millis, United States Airforce Academy

Two Key Components of Cooperative Learning

When establishing a cooperative classroom, two key components should propel all decisions. The first is positive interdependence, encouraging students to work together constructively to accomplish specific tasks. Through careful planning, positive interdependence can be established by having students, achieve: (a) mutual goals, such as reaching a consensus on specific solutions to problems or arriving at team-generated solutions; (b) mutual rewards, such as individually assigned points counting toward a criterion-referenced final grade, (c) structured tasks, such as a report or complex problem with sections contributed by each team member but where the structure requires all students to understand all aspects of the final product; and (d) interdependent roles, such as group members serving as discussion leaders, organizers, recorders, and spokespersons.

A second key component is individual accountability, insuring that all students learn the material -- and receive commensurate grades -- rather than riding on the coattails of their peers. Such an approach means that you will deliberately structure tasks where all students must contribute -- and learn. Nothing undercuts a cooperative classroom more than a grading system where students are pitted against one another in competition for a set number of As or Bs. Therefore, you will want to establish a criterion-referenced grading scheme where all students meeting high standards can receive appropriate grades even though peer coaching and cooperative efforts may contribute toward that individual achievement.

A Cooperative Example

Often your course assignments can foster both positive interdependence and individual accountability. For example, if you give students a specific task to complete cooperatively, do not identify the spokesperson ahead of time. (This is a cooperative structure called "Numbered Heads Together" [Kagan, 1989], "Problem Solving Lesson" [Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1991], or "Structured Problem-Solving" [Millis and Cottell, 1998]). This approach produces several positive results: (1) it encourages all students to learn the material because they don't know who will be called upon; (2) it encourages weaker students to request -- and typically receive -- peer coaching; and, (3) it encourages shy or less-able students to accept leadership roles because their selection as the spokesperson is random rather than team or teacher-selected and the report they give is not their individual report, but the team's.

Participant of the "Promoting Critical Thinking Through Active Learning" Dialogue Day, February 7, 2003, District Office, Governing Board Room

Organizing Groups

To organize groups/teams and keep them working productively, think about these guidelines:

• Keep the group size small
  Many teachers consider four, or a quad, the ideal because the group is large enough to contain students who will bring diverse opinions, experiences, and learning styles to aid in problem solving. If a group member is absent, the group can continue to function smoothly. A group of four is not so large, however, that students can hide. All must carry their fair share of the workload. A quad has the additional advantage of offering easy pair formation within the group.
• Aim for teacher-selected heterogeneous groups
  Stein and Hurd (2000) state flatly: "Teams should be heterogeneous: diverse in gender, ethnic background, and academic ability" (p. 12). Felder and Brent (1994) also recommend heterogeneity unless there is a compelling reason -- such as an insecure member of an underrepresented group isolated in a group -- to use a different grouping approach. They observe: "In mixed ability groups, on the other hand, the weaker students gain from seeing how better students study and approach problems, and the strong students gain a deeper understanding of the subject by teaching it to others"(p. 7).
  
  Besides enhancing the likelihood of success with academic tasks, heterogeneous grouping will typically permit students to work constructively with varied individuals who bring different strengths and approaches to academic tasks. Positive interactions with diverse individuals prepare students for the modern work place and for society as a whole. You should explain to students your rationale for grouping them as you do rather than allowing them to select their own teammates. Self-selected groups tend to be homogenous, reducing the likelihood of divergent thinking, and the roles and expectations tend to be more fixed, eliminating the "dating dance" where students are on their best behavior.
• Keep Groups Together to Promote "Bonding"
  Permanent learning teams should remain together long enough to pass through the "forming," "storming," "norming," and "performing" phases cited in the group dynamics literature (Tuckman, 1965; Tuckman & Jensen, 1977). Students need time to become acquainted, to identify one another's strengths, and to learn to support and coach one another. Thus, most practitioners recommend that groups remain together for the duration of an extended project or a series of ongoing activities. Usually, students will remain together about half a semester. Always clearly explain to students when and why they will be re-grouped to forestall the inevitable laments that come from closely bonded teams "rent asunder."

Classroom Management Approaches

Some additional classroom management techniques foster genuine cooperative learning. They help students and faculty to understand and accept their new roles, and they simplify the day-to-day classroom logistics. Here are some crucial guidelines for classroom management -- based on both theory and good practice:

• Monitor group dynamics and social skills
  You should never take for granted that your students know how to work well in groups or that they will bring to the group prerequisite skills such as listening, respectful behaviors, and group leadership. Both students and teachers need to monitor group and individual progress. After an assignment or activity, for instance, students could respond to questions such as: "Did all members of the group contribute?" "What could be done next time to make the group function better?" or "What were the most important things I learned today?"
  
  In a cooperative classroom, you are also actively involved in monitoring by moving from group to group as teams complete cooperative tasks. Besides keeping students on task, you can uncover misconceptions and hear student-centered ways of approaching your material. Furthermore, you become approachable and signal to students that you care about their learning.
• Structure cooperative activities
  As a general rule, when deciding to use a group-based activity, you will want to ask yourself the following questions: What will you do? Why are you doing it? How will this activity further your course objectives? In addition, how will you: introduce this activity to students, form groups, monitor students' interactions and learning, foster positive interdependence (goal, resource materials, evaluation methods, roles, etc.), maintain individual accountability, assess student learning, student interactions/contributions, and the overall success of the activity? What problems/challenges do you expect?
  
  After deciding on a given activity -- because some students will come to your classes predisposed to work independently and others may have been "burned" in the past by ineptly managed group work -- you need to explain carefully why group interactions will further immediate course goals and also lead to other desirable outcomes such as acquiring the teamwork skills needed in the modern work place.
  
  After that, to avoid frustration and conclusion, you must clearly explain the activity or task. Clear instructions always include the time involved. As a general rule, it is better to allow too little time and then expand it as needed rather than to give students a twenty-minute in-class activity that many groups will complete in ten. Numerous studies have identified "time on task" as a factor critical to student achievement. In fact, instructions should also include a "sponge" or extension activity that teams must turn to if they complete the initial assignment. This "sponge" typically involves more challenging problems to solve or more complex issues to discuss.

Some Additional Classroom Management Approaches

To keep a class functioning smoothly, consider classroom management techniques such as using a quiet signal and team folders augmented by playing cards to establish clear roles.

Bob Galloway, (Mesa Community College/MCLI) ponders during a group activity at the "Promoting Critical Thinking Through Active Learning" Dialogue Day, February 7, 2003, District Office, Governing Board Room

• Use timesaving classroom techniques
  To avoid wasted time, you must move quickly in and out of group work. Students noisily engaged in group activities must understand that when you signal the end of the allotted time, they must give you their immediate attention. In small classes, merely calling "time" may suffice. In larger classes you may want to use a visual signal such as a raised hand (called a quiet signal, students raise their hand also as they cease talking to create a ripple effect). Combining the quiet signal with an auditory signal such as a timer beep enables you to conclude the activity as well as keep track of the time.
  
  Time is saved also by using team folders -- even in a small class -- when you assign students to permanent or semi-permanent groups. At the beginning of each class session a designated group member picks up the team folder in which you have placed all relevant class materials and any papers to return. During class the students put in the folder their homework and any in-class written activities, such as a Roundtable activity where students pass a single sheet of paper rapidly among the team members each adding an idea as they say it aloud. Roundtable is particularly useful for recall, brainstorming, and prediction. The designated student returns the folder to your desk, which may also include a record of the team's attendance or homework completion, at the conclusion of class. Students can use sheets stapled in the folder to keep track of attendance or homework completion.
  
  To delineate tasks and assign roles rapidly you must be able to identify quickly both teams and team members. Students can number off within their teams (one, two, three, four), but many faculty prefer to identify teams and team members through the use of playing cards. The playing cards allow you to communicate readily to students their group assignments (by the rank of the card) and the roles they are to play within that group (by the suit of the card). They also enable you to keep track of students you have called upon directly -- an equity concern -- by checking off from an ongoing list, for example, the "Jack of Hearts" or the "Two of Clubs." When you add extra members, bringing some team totals to five, you can use jokers (called "wild cards") for the fifth member, who fills in for anyone absent.
  
  The roles assigned within the groups -- typically leader, recorder, reporter, and folder monitor -- should be rotated frequently to form positive interdependence. This practice discourages domination by one person, a problem common in less structured group work, and gives all students an opportunity to practice various social, communication, and leadership skills.

Conclusion

Faculty understanding the research and theory behind cooperative learning -- and the classroom management techniques that insure smooth implementation -- can adapt it to virtually any curriculum and to any compatible pedagogical approach. As a result, learning can be deepened, students will enjoy attending classes, and they will come to respect and value the contributions of their fellow classmates. Millis (2000-2001) explains why cooperative learning is far from a "trendy" fad:

It allows us to be student-centered without abrogating the responsibility of shaping a class based on our experience and expertise. It provides us with the tools to structure activities that maximize learning. It helps us foster not only learning, but also a host of other positive outcomes such as increased self-esteem, respect for others, and civility. It can transform our large, diverse lecture classes into a community of supportive teams. Cooperative learning satisfies, for students, a human desire for connection and cooperation. In additional to keeping them energized and awake, it gives them the social support to tackle complex tasks impossible to complete alone. It gives them essential social and communication skills needed for success in the workplace. Finally, for both teachers and students, cooperation makes learning fun. (p. 4)

References

See also:
"Promoting Critical Thinking Through Active Learning" Dialogue Day
with Dr. Barbara Millis
http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/d/crit_think_feb03/